Caliphate of Ali Ibn Abu -Talib
Election as Caliph
Ali was
caliph between 656 and 661, during one of the more turbulent periods in Muslim
history, which also coincided with the First Fitna.
Uthman's
assassination meant that rebels had to select a new caliph. This met with
difficulties since the rebels were divided into several groups comprising the Muhajirun,
Ansar, Egyptians, Kufans and Basntes. There were three candidates: Ali,
Talhah and al-Zubayr. First the rebels approached Ali, requesting him to accept
being the caliph. Some of Muhammad's companions tried to persuade Ali in
accepting the office, but he turned down the offer, suggesting to be a
counselor instead of a chief.
Talhah,
Zubayr and other companions also refused the rebels' offer of the caliphate.
Therefore, the rebels warned the inhabitants of Medina to select a caliph
within one day, or they would apply drastic action. In order to resolve the
deadlock, the Muslims gathered in the Mosque of the Prophet on June 18, 656 to
appoint the caliph. Initially Ali refused to accept simply because his most
vigorous supporters were rebels. However, when some notable companions of
Muhammad, in addition to the residents of Medina urged him to accept the offer,
he finally agreed. According to Abu Mekhnaf's narration, Talhah was the first
prominent companion who gave his pledge to Ali, but other narrations claimed
otherwise, stating they were forced to give their pledge. Also, Talhah and
Zubayr later claimed they supported him reluctantly. Regardless, Ali refuted these
claims, insisting they recognized him as caliph voluntarily. Wilferd Madelung
believes that force did not urge people to give their pledge and they pledged
publicly in the mosque.
While the
overwhelming majority of Madina's population as well as many of the rebels gave
their pledge, some important figures or tribes did not do so. The Umayyads,
kinsmen of Uthman, fled to the Levant or remained in their houses, later
refusing Ali's legitimacy. Sa'ad ibn Abi Waqqas was absent and Abdullah ibn
Umar abstained from offering his allegiance, but both of them assured Ali that
they would not act against him.
Reign as Caliph
Since the conflicts in which Ali was involved were perpetuated in polemical sectarian historiography, biographical material is often biased. But the sources agree that he was a profoundly religious man, devoted to the cause of Islam and the rule of justice in accordance with the Quran and the Sunna; he engaged in war against erring Muslims as a matter of religious duty. The sources abound in notices on his austerity, rigorous observance of religious duties, and detachment from worldly goods. Thus some authors have pointed out that he lacked political skill and flexibility.Ali inherited the Rashidun Caliphate—which extended from Egypt in the west to the Iranian highlands in the east—while the situation in the Hejaz and the other provinces on the eve of his election was unsettled. Soon after Ali became caliph, he dismissed provincial governors who had been appointed by Uthman, replacing them with trusted aides. He acted against the counsel of Mughira ibn Shu'ba and Ibn Abbas, who had advised him to proceed his governing cautiously. Madelung says Ali was deeply convinced of his right and his religious mission, unwilling to compromise his principles for the sake of political expediency, and ready to fight against overwhelming odds. Muawiyah I, the kinsman of Uthman and governor of the Levant refused to submit to Ali's orders; he was the only governor to do so.
When he was
appointed caliph, Ali stated to the citizens of Medina that Muslim polity had
come to be plagued by dissension and discord; he desired to purge Islam of any
evil. He advised the populace to behave as true Muslims, warning that he would
tolerate no sedition and those who were found guilty of subversive activities
would be dealt with harshly. Ali recovered the land granted by Uthman and swore
to recover anything that elites had acquired before his election. Ali opposed
the centralization of capital control over provincial revenues, favoring an
equal distribution of taxes and booty amongst the Muslim citizens; He
distributed the entire revenue of the treasury among them. Ali refrained from
nepotism, including with his brother Aqeel ibn Abu Talib. This was an
indication to Muslims of his policy of offering equality to Muslims who served
Islam in its early years and to the Muslims who played a role in the later
conquests.
Ali succeeded
in forming a broad coalition especially after the Battle of the Camel. His
policy of equal distribution of taxes and booty gained the support of
Muhammad's companions especially the Ansar who were subordinated by the Quraysh
leadership after Muhammad, the traditional tribal leaders, and the Qurra or
Quran reciters that sought pious Islamic leadership. The successful formation
of this diverse coalition seems to be due to Ali's charismatic character. This
diverse coalition became known as Shia Ali, meaning "party" or
"faction of Ali". However according to Shia, as well as non-Shia
reports, the majority of those who supported Ali after his election as caliph,
were shia politically, not religiously. Although at this time there were many
who counted as political Shia, few of them believed Ali's religious leadership.
Under such
circumstances, a schism took place which led to the first civil war in Muslim
history. Some Muslims, known as Uthmanis, considered Uthman a rightful and just
Imam (Islamic leader) till the end, who had been unlawfully killed. Thus his
position was in abeyance until he had been avenged and a new caliph elected. In
their view Ali was the Imam of error leading a party of infidels. Some others,
who are known as party of Ali, believed Uthman had fallen into error, he had forfeited
the caliphate and been lawfully executed for his refusal to mend his way or
step down, thus Ali was the just and true Imam and his opponents are infidels.
This civil war created permanent divisions within the Muslim community
regarding who had the legitimate right to occupy the caliphate.
The First Fitna, 656–661, followed the assassination of Uthman, continued during the caliphate of Ali, and was ended by Muawiyah's assumption of the caliphate. This civil war (often called the Fitna) is regretted as the end of the early unity of the Islamic ummah (nation). Ali was first opposed by a faction led by Talhah, Al-Zubayr and Muhammad's wife, Aisha bint Abu Bakr. This group, known as "the disobedient ones" (Nakithin) by their enemies, gathered in Mecca then moved to Basra with the expectation of finding the necessary forces and resources to mobilize people of Iraq. The rebels occupied Basra, killing many people. They refused Ali's offer of obedience and pledge of allegiance. The two sides met at the Battle of Bassorah (Battle of the Camel) in 656, where Ali emerged victorious.
Ali appointed Ibn Abbas governor of Basra and moved his capital to Kufa, the Muslim garrison city in Iraq. Kufa was in the middle of Islamic land and had strategic position.
Later he was challenged by Muawiyah I, the governor of Levant and the cousin of Uthman, who refused Ali's demands for allegiance and called for revenge for Uthman. Ali opened negotiations hoping to regain his allegiance, but Muawiyah insisted on Levant autonomy under his rule. Muawiyah replied by mobilizing his Levantine supporters and refusing to pay homage to Ali on the pretext that his contingent had not participated in his election. The two armies encamped themselves at Siffin for more than one hundred days, most of the time being spent in negotiations. Although, Ali exchanged several letters with Muawiyah, he was unable to dismiss the latter, nor persuade him to pledge allegiance. Skirmishes between the parties led to the Battle of Siffin in 657. After a week of combat was followed by a violent battle known as laylat al-harir (the night of clamor), Muawiyah's army were on the point of being routed when Amr ibn al-Aas advised Muawiyah to have his soldiers hoist mus'ha (either parchments inscribed with verses of the Quran, or complete copies of it) on their spearheads in order to cause disagreement and confusion in Ali's army. Ali saw through the stratagem, but only a minority wanted to pursue the fight.
The two armies finally agreed to settle the matter of who should be Caliph by arbitration. The refusal of the largest bloc in Ali's army to fight was the decisive factor in his acceptance of the arbitration. The question as to whether the arbiter would represent Ali or the Kufans caused a further split in Ali's army. Ash'ath ibn Qays and some others rejected Ali's nominees, 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abbas and Malik al-Ashtar, and insisted on Abu Musa Ash'ari, who was opposed by Ali, since he had earlier prevented people from supporting him. Finally, Ali was urged to accept Abu Musa. Some of Ali's supporters, later were known as Kharijites (schismatics), opposed arbitration and rebelled and Ali had to fight with them in the Battle of Nahrawan. The arbitration resulted in the dissolution of Ali's coalition and some have opined that this was Muawiyah's intention.
In the following years Muawiyah's army invaded and plundered cities of Iraq, which Ali's governors could not prevent and people did not support him to fight with them. Muawiyah overpowered Egypt, Hijaz, Yemen and other areas. In the last year of Ali's caliphate, the mood in Kufa and Basra changed in his favor as Muawiyah's vicious conduct of the war revealed the nature of his reign. However the people's attitude toward Ali differed deeply. Just a small minority of them believed that Ali was the best Muslim after Muhammad (صلی الله علیھ وآلہ وسلم ) and the only one entitled to rule them, while the majority supported him due to their distrust and opposition to Muawiyah.
Policies
What shows Ali's policies and ideas of governing is his instruction to Malik al-Ashtar, when appointed by him as governor of Egypt. This instruction which is considered by many Muslims and even non-Muslims as the ideal constitution for Islamic governance involved detailed description of duties and rights of the ruler and various functionaries of the state and the main classes of society at that time.Ali wrote in his instruction to Malik al-Ashtar:
Infuse your
heart with mercy, love and kindness for your subjects. Be not in face of them a
voracious animal, counting them as easy prey, for they are of two kinds: either
they are your brothers in religion or your equals in creation. Error catches
them unaware, deficiencies overcome them, (evil deeds) are committed by them
intentionally and by mistake. So grant them your pardon and your forgiveness to
the same extent that you hope God will grant you His pardon and His
forgiveness. For you are above them, and he who appointed you is above you, and
God is above him who appointed you. God has sought from you the fulfillment of
their requirements and He is trying you with them.
Death
On the 19th
of Ramadan, while worshipping in the Great Mosque of Kufa, Ali was attacked by
the Khawarij Abd-al-Rahman ibn Muljam. He was wounded by ibn Muljam's
poison-coated sword while prostrating in the Fajr prayer. Ali ordered his sons
not to attack the Kharijites, instead stipulating that if he survived, ibn
Muljam would be pardoned whereas if he died, ibn Muljam should be given only
one equal hit (regardless of whether or not he dies from the hit).
Ali died a few
days later on February 28, 661 (21 Ramadan 40 A.H) Hasan fulfilled Qisas and
gave equal punishment to ibn Muljam upon Ali's death.
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